Shopping on line can be easy, simple and save you lots of money. It can also take a lot of your time, frustrate you, and result in unwanted purchases. Now the same can be said for regular high street shopping, but with the vast opportunity presented by the Internet it will pay you to spend a few minutes reading this and understanding how to better optimize your Slovak Language shopping experience:

1. Compare - without doubt the biggest advantage that the Slovak Language offers shoppers today is the ability to compare thousands of Slovak Language at a time. This is a great thing, but not necessarily all the time! Too much can be daunting at times so take advantage of the great comparison sites and where possible let them do the hard work for you.

2. Research - if it has been said it will be on the internet. Ignorance is no longer a justifiable reason for buying the wrong thing. Take the time to research in detail everything that you could possible want to know about

3. Testimonials - don't know anybody that has bought a Slovak Language? Wrong! If the Slovak Language is good the internet will let you know. Use the Internet as a friend and get testimonials before you buy.

4. Questions - Got a question about Slovak Language then search the Forums, FAQ's, Blogs etc. Don't be afraid to ask .....

5. Reputation - Never heard of the company selling Slovak Language? Don't worry, no reason why you should know every company in the world, but you know someone that does! Use the internet to find out what people are saying about Slovak Language and build up a picture of their reputation for sales, returns, customer service, delivery etc.

6. Returns - still worried that even after all of the above your Slovak Language wont be what you want? Check out the returns policy. There is so much competition now that someone, somewhere is bound to offer the terms that you are comfortable with.

7. Feedback - happy with your Slovak Language then let people know, after all you are depending on others people input in your buying decision, so why not give a little back.

8. Security - check for the yellow padlock on the Slovak Language site before you buy, and the s after http:/ /i.e. https:// = a secure site

9. Contact - got a question about Slovak Language, or want to leave a comment then check out the sites contact page. Reputable companies have them and respond.

10. Payment - ready to pay for your Slovak Language, then use your credit card or PayPal! Be aware of companies that don't accept them, there may be genuine reasons but given the huge amount of choice you have when buying online there is no reason at all not to buy via credit card or PayPal.

{{Infobox Language|name=Slovak|nativename=slovenčina|familycolor=Indo-European|states=Slovakia, United States, Canada, Czech Republic, Serbia, Romania, Hungary etc.]|speakers=over 6 million|rank=104|fam2=Slavic languages|fam3=West Slavic languages|fam4=Czech-Slovak languages|nation=

Vojvodina (Serbia)] (The Ľudovít Štúr Linguistic Institute)] belonging to the West Slavic languages (together with Czech language, Polish language, Kashubian language and Sorbian language). Slovak is Mutual intelligibility with Czech.

Slovak is spoken in Slovakia (by 5 million people), the United States (500,000, emigrants), the Czech Republic (320,000, due to the former Czechoslovakia), Hungary (20,000, due to former unitary state), Northern Serbia-Vojvodina (60,000, due to Austria-Hungary), Romania (22,000, due to A-H), Poland (20,000), Canada (20,000, emigrants), Australia (emigrants), Austria, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Croatia (5,000) and some other countries.

Alphabet A technical note for users of the English wikipedia: All Slovak vowels, but no Slovak-specific consonants (that is no č, ď, ľ, ĺ, ň, ŕ, š, ť, ž) are available within the Latin-1 encoding.

Slovak uses a modification of the Roman (Latin) alphabet. The modifications include the four diacriticals (ˇ, ´, ¨, ^; see Pronunciation) placed above certain letters.

The lexicographic ordering of the Slovak alphabet is very similar to that of English: A B C D DZ E F G H CH I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z. The complete alphabet, however, allows for characters with diacritics (the character with diacritics always comes after the same character without diacritics) and is as follows: a á ä b c č d ď dz dž e é f g h ch i í j k l ľ ĺ m n ň o ó ô p q r ŕ s š t ť u ú v w x y ý z ž. Note that dz, dž and ch are considered single letters and that ch follows the h (not the c). The letters "q", "w", "x" are only used in loan words, never in native Slovak words.

The names of the letters (like in English ey, bee, cee, dee …) are: a (á), á (dlhé á), ä (prehlasované á; á s dvoma bodkami), bé, cé, čé, dé, ďé, dzé, džé, e (é), é (dlhé é), ef, gé, há, chá, i (í), í (dlhé í), jé, ká, el, eľ, dlhé el, em, en, eň, o (ó), ó (dlhé ó), ô (ó s vokáňom), pé, kvé, er, dlhé er, es, eš, té, ťé, u (ú), ú (dlhé ú), vé, dvojité vé, iks, ypsilon (ý), dlhé ý, zet, žet (for pronunciation see below)

The characters are divided as follows:

• Vowels are: a á ä e é i í o ó y ý u ú (+ r ŕ l ĺ).
• Diphthongs are: ia, ie, iu, ô, ou.
• Consonants are: b c č d ď dz dž f g h ch j k l ľ ĺ m n ň p q r ŕ s š t ť v w x z ž. The consonants r, l, ŕ, ĺ are considered vowels in certain cases (see Pronunciation).

Pronunciation and spelling The Slovak language has distinctive palatalization. It is the closest to Russian language of all the Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet, and many of the Slovak words and pronunciations would be very familiar to students of Russian.

The accent (poetry) (stress (linguistics)) in standard language is always placed on the first syllable of a word (or on the preceding preposition, see below). However, this is not the case in certain dialects. The eastern dialects, for example, have penultimate stress, which at times makes them difficult for speakers of Standard Slovak to understand. Some of the north-central dialects have a weak stress on the first syllable, which becomes stronger and "moves" to the penultimate in certain cases. The stress is weaker than the English or German or Russian accent, but stronger than the French one. Monosyllabic conjunctions, monosyllabic short personal pronouns and auxiliary verb forms of the verb byť (to be) are, as a rule, not stressed.

Prepositions are pronounced in conjunction with the following word, unless the words are long (four syllables or more) or the preposition stands at the very beginning of a sentence.

The Acute accent mark (in Slovak "dĺžeň", that is prolongation mark) indicates the lengthing of the quantity of the vowel it modifies, for example í = approximately ii. The acute can be above all vowels and only above the 2 consonants "l" and "r" (which, in such cases, are considered vowels.) Long vowels are about twice as long as their short counterparts.

The circumflex ("vokáň") exists only above the letter "o" (and turns the o into a diphthong – see below).

The Umlaut (diacritic) ("prehláska", "dve bodky" = two dots) is only used above the letter "a" (and turns the a into almost e – see below).

The caron (in Slovak "mäkčeň", i.e. a "palatalization mark" or "softener") indicates either palatalization or a change of alveolar fricatives into post-alveolar, in informal Slovak linguistics often called just "palatalization". Only 8 consonants can bear a caron, that is, not all "normal" consonants have a "caroned" counterpart:

• In printed texts, the caron is printed in two forms: (1) č, dž, š, ž, ň and (2) ľ, ď, ť (looking more like an apostrophe), but this is just a convention. In handwritten texts, it always takes the form (1).
• Phonetically, there are two forms of "palatalization": ľ, ň, ď, ť are Palatalization consonants, while č, dž, š, ž are postalveolar affricates and fricatives.
• To accelerate writing, a rule has been introduced that the frequent character combinations ňe, ďe, ťe, ľe, ňi, ďi, ťi, ľi, ňí, ďí, ťí, ľí must be written ne, de, te, le, ni, di, ti, li, ní, dí, tí, lí (that is without the caron). In other words ne, de, te, le, ni, di etc. are pronounced as if there were a caron above the consonant. There are, however, exceptions to this rule:

# foreign words (for example telefón is pronounced with a hard t and a hard l) # the following old Slavic words: ten (that), jeden (one), vtedy (then) are pronounced with hard t and d # nominative masculine plural endings of pronouns and adjectives do not "soften" preceding n, d, t, l (for example tí odvážni mladí muži , the/those brave young men) # short e in adjectival endings that is, actually (morphonemically), long é shortened by the "rhythmical rule" (see below) does not "soften" preceding n, d, t, l (for example krásne stromy , beautiful trees, c.f. zelené stromy , green trees)

• ľ is pronounced nowadays by many speakers, esp. from western Slovakia, as a non-palatalized l, esp. in li and le where the caron is not written. The officially correct pronunciation of li and le as palatalized is already frequently perceived either as a trait of middle and eastern dialect, or as a feature of language zealots. (A similar tendency occurs in yeísmo Spanish language, where however the palatal ll is pronounced like English j instead of λ.)

In addition, the following rules hold:

When a voiced consonant having a voiceless correspondent (that is b, d, ď, dz, dž, g, h, z, ž) stands at the end of the word before a pause, it is pronounced as a voiceless consonant (that is p, t, ť, c, č, k, ch, s, š, respectively), for example pohyb is pronounced , prípad is pronounced

When "v" stands at the end of the syllable, it is pronounced as non-syllabic u (bilabial approximant ), with the exception of the position before "n" or "ň", for example, kov (metal), kravský (cow - adjective), but povstať (uprise) because the v is not at the end of the syllable (po-vstať), hlavný because "v" stands before "n" here

The assimilation rule: When voiced consonant(s) having a voiceless correspondent and voiceless consonant(s) meet in the word, all consonants of the group are pronounced as voiced if the last consonant is a voiced one, or as voiceless if the last consonant is a voiceless one, for example otázka is pronounced , vzchopiť sa is pronounced . This rule applies also over the word boundary, for example prísť domov (to come home), viac jahôd (more strawberries). The voiced counterpart of "ch" is .

The rhythmical rule: A long syllable (that is a syllable containing á, é, í, ý, ó, ú, ŕ, ĺ, ia, ie, iu, ô) cannot be followed by another long syllable in the same word, that is the following syllable must be made short (in writing and pronunciation) (this rule has implications for the formation, declension (for example žen-ám but tráv-am) and Grammatical conjugation (for example nos-ím but súd-im) of words; there are several exceptions to this rule; this rule is typical of the literary Slovak language (not existing in the closely related Czech language, or some Slovak dialects).

Official transcriptions Slovak linguists do not usually use IPA for phonetic transcription of their own language or others, but rather their own system based on the Slovak alphabet. Many English language textbooks, for example, make use of this alternative system of 'phonetic' transcription of English, a factor which contributes to some Slovaks developing a particular ('incorrect') pronunciation of certain English phonemes.In the following table, pronunciation of each grapheme is given in this system as well as in IPA and Kirshenbaum.

{| class="wikitable"!grapheme!! IPA !! Kirsh. !! transcr.|-|a || ||a ||a|-|á || ||a: ||á|-|ä || ||&, E ||ä, e|-|b || ||b ||b|-|c || ||ts ||c|-|č || ||ts. ||č|-|d || ||d ||d|-|ď || ||d; ||ď|-|dz || ||dz |||-|dž || ||dz. |||-|e || ||E ||e|-|é || ||E: ||é|-|f || ||f ||f|-|g || ||g ||g|-|h || ||h ||h|-|ch || ||x ||x|-|i || ||I ||i|-|í || ||i: ||í|-|j || ||j ||j|-|k || ||k ||k|-|l || ||l, l- ||l|-|ĺ || ||l-: ||ĺ|-|ľ || ||l; ||ľ|-|m || ||m ||m|-|n || ||n ||n|-|ň || ||n; ||ň|-|o || ||O ||o|-|ó ||||O: ||ó|-|ô ||||uo ||ŭo|-|p || ||p ||p|-|q || ||kv ||kv|-|r || ||r, r- ||r|-|ŕ ||||r-: ||ŕ|-|s || ||s ||s|-|š || ||s. ||š|-|t || ||t ||t|-|ť || ||t; ||ť|-|u || ||u ||u|-|ú || ||u: ||ú|-|v || ||v ||v|-|w || ||v ||v|-|x || ||ks ||ks|-|y || ||I ||i|-|ý || ||i: ||í|-|z || ||z ||z|-|ž || ||z. ||ž|}

Some additional notes (transcriptions in IPA unless otherwise stated):

• Pronunciation of ä as is already archaic (or dialectical) but still considered correct by some linguistic authorities; the other standard pronunciation today is .
• r and l can be syllabic phonemes and and behave as vowels, i.e. they have their long phonemic counterparts and (written ŕ and ĺ), e.g., vlk (wolf), prst (finger), štvrť (quarter), krk (neck), bisyllabic vĺča—vĺ-ča (wolfling), vŕba—vŕ-ba (willow-tree), etc.
• ch, normally the unvoiced , can have the voiced as an allophone as a result of phonetic assimilation.
• The sound group or graphemic group -ou (at the end of words) is pronounced but is not considered a separate diphthong, nor grapheme respectively (unlike ch, dz, dž). Its phonemic interpretation is /ov/.
• ia, ie, iu form diphthongs in native Slovak words, but two monophtongs in foreign and loan words.
• m has the allophone in front of the labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/.
• n in front of (post)alveolar fricatives has an allophone written as in Slovak phonemic transcription; this is, however, an allophone of /n/.
• n can be in front of the velar plosives /k/ and /g/.
• f can be voiced as a result of phonetic assimilation.

Intuitive transcription for English speakers The following list shows a list of Slovak sounds and their approximate English equivalents:

The values of the characters b, d, f, h, l, k, m, n, p, x are approximately equal to their English counterparts.The vowel combinations ia, ie, iu, ô appr. like uo are diphthongs, that is both elements are pronounced "together" the first element is almost a Slovak j for ia, ie, and iu and almost an English w for ô.

• a – u in cut
• á – a in father (long a)
• ä – e in set (or in old-fashioned — but canonical — pronunciation like a in fat)
• c – ts in its
• č – ch in child
• ď – approx. British d in during, dew
• dz – approx. d+z (voiced c; very much like the Italian zz in organizzare or azzurro)
• dž – j in John (voiced č)
• e – e in set
• é – ai in fair (long e)
• g – g in go
• h - always pronounced; voiced (/ɦ/), except if at the end of the word
• ch – Scottish ch, for example in Loch Ness (like Russian х)
• i – i in sit
• í – ee in need (long i)
• j – y in yes
• ľ – approx. l in lurid (like gli... in Italian, lh in Portuguese or ll in non-yeismo Spanish)
• ĺ – approx. "ll"(long "L") - no known equivalents in other languages
• ň – like French or Italian gn, Portuguese nh or Spanish ñ
• o – o in odd
• ó – aw in saw, a in ball (long o)
• r – "rolled r" like in Italian, Scottish, Bavarian (and like a Spanish r that is not before a vowel and not at the beginning of the word, for example in color)
• ŕ – approx. Spanish rr in Zorro)
• s – s in save
• š – sh in she
• ť – approx. the first t in tutor
• ô – approx. wo in wonder (or like Italian uo in buono)
• q – qu is like Slovak kv; q does not occur elsewhere
• u – u in put
• ú – oo in choose (long u)
• v – v in very (but at the end of the syllable approx. as the second w in window, see above)
• y – like Slovak i
• ý – like Slovak í (long y, as ee in eel)
• z – z in zone
• ž – s in pleasure (like French and Portuguese j in journal/jornal or g in général/general)
• w – like Slovak v

Orthography The primary principle of Slovak spelling is the phoneme principle (that is "Write as you hear") – as opposed to the English spelling where the etymological principle is primary. The secondary principle is the morphological principle (that is, all forms derived from the same stem are written in the same way even if they are pronounced differently in reality) – the main example is the assimilation rule (see Pronunciation). The tertiary principle is the etymological principle, which can be seen in the use of i after certain consonants and of y after other consonants, although both i and y are pronounced the same way. And finally there is the rarely applied grammatical principle, under which, for example, there is a difference in writing (but not in the pronunciation) between the basic singular and plural form of masculine adjectives, for example pekný (nice – sg.) vs pekní (nice – pl.), both pronounced .

Most loanword receive Slovak spelling immediately or after some time, for example "weekend" is víkend, "software" is softvér (but some 15-years-ago was spelled the English way), and "quality" is spelled kvalita (different sound; possibly from Italian language qualità). However, personal and geographical names from other languages using Latin alphabets keep their original spelling, unless there is a fully Slovak form for the name (for example Londýn for "London").

Slovak orthography has changed many times. One of the most important changes was after World War II when s began to be written as z where pronounced as in prefix (linguistics), for example smluva into zmluva, sväz into zväz. (That is, the phonemic principle has been given priority over the etymological principle in this case.)

Interestingly, the Slovak alphabet (minus the vowel diacritics) is often used to transcribe Russian language into the Latin alphabet.

Syntax The main features of Slovak syntax are:

• The verb (predicate (grammar)) agrees in person and number with its subject (grammar) – just like for example in German language, Slavic languages and Romance languages, for example:

Speváčka spieva. (The+female+singer is+singing.) (Speváčk-a spieva-0, where -0 is a third person singular ending)

Speváčky spievajú. (The+female+singers are+singing.) (Speváčk-y spieva-j-ú, where -ú is a third person plural ending, -j- is a Hiatus (linguistics) sound)

My speváčky spievame. (We the+female+singers are+singing.) (My speváčk-y spieva-me, where -me is the first person plural ending) and so forth.

• An adjective, pronoun and partly also a numeral agrees in person, gender and case with the noun it refers to (see Slovak declension) – just like in most Slavic languages.
• An adjective always precedes the corresponding noun – as in English language, unlike in Polish language and Romance languages. Botanic or zoological terms are exceptions (for example, mačka divá, literally "cat wild", Felis silvestris).

Word order in Slovak is relatively free (unlike in English or French language), since the strong inflection of words enables the identification of the specific role of a word within the sentence (subject, object, predicate, etc.) regardless of its placement. This relatively free word order enables Slovaks (just as in most other Slavic languages) to make use the word order to impose emphasis conveying importance or novelty of themes in a sentence i.e. constituents relating to old information precede constituents with new information, or those that carry most emphasis.

Examples: Ten veľký muž tam dnes otvára obchod. = The big man opens a store there today. (ten = the or that; veľký = big; muž = man; tam = there; dnes = today; otvára = opens; obchod = store) Ten veľký muž dnes otvára obchod tam. = It is there that the big man opens a store today. Dnes tam otvára obchod ten veľký muž. = It is the big man who opens a store there today. Obchod tam dnes otvára ten veľký muž. = As for the store, it is opened there by the big man.

However, the normal order is Subject-Verb-Object (as in English) and the word order is not completely arbitrary.For example, in the above example, the following combinations are not possible: Ten otvára veľký muž tam dnes obchod. Obchod muž tam ten veľký dnes otvára. ... And the following, for instance, are not likely to occur: Otvára ten veľký muž tam dnes obchod? = Is that big man opening the store there? Obchod ten veľký muž dnes tam otvára.

This means that these senteces will not be grammatically correct, although they are "understandable".

Morphology Articles (Členy) There are no articles in the Slovak language. If it is really necessary to emphasize that the thing that one is talking about was already mentioned, the demonstrative pronoun ten (fem: tá, neuter: to) can be used in front of the noun.

Nouns (Podstatné mená) See: Slovak declension

Adjectives (Prídavné mená) See: Slovak declension

Pronouns (Zámená) See: Slovak declension

Numerals (Číslovky) The basic formation of Slovak numerals is similar to that of English: there are special words for 0-19 and for 20, 30 . . . 90, 100, 1000 etc. and the compound numerals (21, 1054) are simply combinations of these special words formed in the same order as their mathematical symbol is written (for example 21 = dvadsaťjeden (that is literally „twenty-one“)).

The numerals are:(1) jeden (jedno (neuter), jedna (feminine)),(2) dva (dve (neuter, feminine)),(3) tri,(4) štyri,(5) päť,(6) šesť,(7) sedem,(8) osem,(9) deväť,(10) desať, (11) jedenásť, (12) dvanásť, (13) trinásť, (14) štrnásť, (15) pätnásť, (16) šestnásť, (17) sedemnásť, (18) osemnásť, (19) devätnásť, (20) dvadsať, (21) dvadsaťjeden . . . ., (30) tridsať, (31) tridsaťjeden . . . (40) štyridsať, . . . (50) päťdesiat, . . . (60) šesťdesiat, . . . (70) sedemdesiat, . . . (80) osemdesiat, . . . (90) deväťdesiat, . . . (100) sto, (101) stojeden, . . . . (200) dvesto, . . . (300) tristo, . . . (900)deväťsto, . . . (1,000) tisíc, . . . (1,100) tisícsto, . . . (2,000) dvetisíc, . . (100,000) stotisíc, . . . (200,000) dvestotisíc, . . . (1,000,000) milión, . . . (1,000,000,000) miliarda, . . .

See also: Slovak declension

Verbs (Slovesá)

• Verbs have three major conjugations distinguishing 3 persons and 2 numbers (singular and plural) – just like in English. There are several Grammatical conjugation paradigms- like in most European languages.

• á-Type Verbs

{| class="wikitable"|-! volať, to call! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| volám| voláme| volal|-| 2nd Person| voláš| voláte|-| 3rd Person| volá| volajú|}

• á-Type Verbs - rhythmic law

{| class="wikitable"|-! bývať, to live! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| bývam| bývame| býval|-| 2nd Person| bývaš| bývate|-| 3rd Person| býva| bývajú|}

• á-Type Verbs - soft stem

{| class="wikitable"|-! vracať, to return! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| vraciam| vraciame| vracal|-| 2nd Person| vraciaš| vraciate|-| 3rd Person| vracia| vracajú|}

• í-Type Verbs

{| class="wikitable"|-! robiť, to do, work! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| robím| robíme| robil|-| 2nd Person| robíš| robíte|-| 3rd Person| robí| robia|}

• í-Type Verbs - rhythmic law

{| class="wikitable"|-! vrátiť, to return! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| vrátim| vrátime| vrátil|-| 2nd Person| vrátiš| vrátite|-| 3rd Person| vráti| vrátia|}

• ie-Type Verbs

{| class="wikitable"|-! vidieť, to see! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| vidím| vidíme| videl|-| 2nd Person| vidíš| vidíte|-| 3rd Person| vidí| vidia|}

• e-Type Verbs -ovať

{| class="wikitable"|-! kupovať, to buy! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| kupujem| kupujeme| kupoval|-| 2nd Person| kupuješ| kupujete|-| 3rd Person| kupuje| kupujú|}

• e-Type Verbs - (typically -Cnuť)

{| class="wikitable"|-! zabudnuť, to forget! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| zabudnem| zabudneme| zabudol - zabudla|-| 2nd Person| zabudneš| zabudnete|-| 3rd Person| zabudne| zabudnú|}

• ie-Type Verbs - (typically -Vnuť)

{| class="wikitable"|-! minuť, to spend, miss! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| miniem| minieme| minul|-| 2nd Person| minieš| miniete|-| 3rd Person| minie| minú|}

• ie-Type Verbs - -cť, -sť, -zť

{| class="wikitable"|-! niesť, to carry! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| nesiem| nesieme| niesol, niesla|-| 2nd Person| nesieš| nesiete|-| 3rd Person| nesie| nesú|}

• ie-Type Verbs - -nieť

{| class="wikitable"|-! stučnieť, to carry (be fat)! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| stučniem| stučnieme| stučnel|-| 2nd Person| stučnieš| stučniete|-| 3rd Person| stučnie| stučnejú|}

• Irregular Verbs

{| class="wikitable"|-!! byť, to be! jesť, to eat! vedieť, to know|-| 1st Sg| som| jem| viem|-| 2nd Sg| si| ješ| vieš|-| 3rd Sg| je| je| vie|-| 1st Pl| sme| jeme| vieme|-| 2nd Pl| ste| jete| viete|-| 3rd Pl| sú| jedia| vedia|-| Past Participle| bol| jedol| vedel|}

• subject (grammar) personal pronouns are often omitted unless they are emphatic - like in Italian language or Spanish language, unlike in Russian language or English.

• The English continuous form (that is to be . . . ing) is expressed by a change in the stem of the verb or by removing the prefix (note however that this statement is a strong simplification). The non-continuous version is called a perfective verb and the continuous version an imperfective verb. Example: :to hide = skryť, to be hiding = skrývať

• There are only two preterite. Both are formed analytically. The latter, however, is not used in the modern language and is considered dated and/or grammatically incorrect. Examples for two verbs (note that the continuous form is considered a separate verb in Slavic languages):

skryť (to hide) : skryl som (I hid / I have hidden); bol som skryl (I had hidden) skrývať (to be hiding): skrýval som (I was hiding); bol som skrýval (I had been hiding)

• There is only one future tense. For imperfective verbs, it is formed analytically, for perfective verbs it is identical with the present tense. Examples:

skryť (to hide) : skryjem (I will hide / I will have hidden) skrývať (to be hiding) : budem skrývať (I will be hiding)

• There are two conditional forms. Both are formed analytically from the past tense:

skryť (to hide) : skryl by som (I would hide), bol by som skryl (I would have hidden) skrývať (to be hiding) : skrýval by som (I would be hiding), bol by som skrýval (I would have been hiding)

• The passive voice is formed either like in English (to be + past participle) or like in Romance languages (using the reflexive pronoun 'sa'):

skryť (to hide): je skrytý (he is hidden); sa skryje (he is hidden) skrývať (to be hiding): je skrývaný (he is being hidden); sa skrýva (he is being hidden)

• The active present participle (=which is ...ing) is formed using the suffixes –úci/ -iaci / - aci

skryť (to hide) : skryjúci (which is hiding) skrývať (to be hiding): skrývajúci (which is being hiding)

• The gerund (=by/when ...ing) is formed using the suffixes –úc / -uc / –iac/-ac

skryť (to hide): skryjúc (by/when hiding) skrývať (to be hiding): skrývajúc (by/when being hiding)

• The active past participle (= which was ...ing) was formerly formed using the suffix –vší, but is no longer used.

• The passive participle (= ...ed (adj.)) is formed using the suffixes -ný / -tý / -ený:

skryť (to hide): skrytý (hid) skrývať (to be hiding): skrývaný (being hidden)

• The 'verbal noun' (= the ...ing) is formed using the suffix –ie:

skryť (to hide): skrytie (the hiding) skrývať (to be hiding): skrývanie (the continuous hiding)

Adverbs (Príslovky) Adverbs are usually formed by replacing the adjectival ending with the ending –o or sometimes –e / -y(sometimes both –o and -e are possible). Examples: vysoký (high) – vysoko (highly) pekný (nice) – pekne (nicely) priateľský (friendly) – priateľsky (in a friendly manner) rýchly (fast) – rýchlo / rýchle (quickly)

The comparative/superlative of adverbs is formed by replacing the adjective comparative/superlative ending - (ej)ší by the ending –(ej)šie. Examples: rýchly (fast)– rýchlejší (faster) – najrýchlejší (fastest):rýchlo (quickly) – rýchlejšie (more quickly) – najrýchlejšie (most quickly)

Prepositions (Predložky) These are used like in English except that, in addition, each single preposition is associated with a particular grammatical case and the noun following the preposition must take the ending of the case required by the preposition.Example: from friends = od priateľov (priateľov is the genitive case of priatelia, because the preposition od (=from) always calls for its objects to be in the genitive case)

Conjunctions (Spojky), Particles (Častice), Interjections (Citoslovcia) These work more or less as in the English language.

Note: The Slovak (and Czech) definition of particles has been taken from Russian linguistics. Although the English linguists subsume them under the conjunctions, interjections and other word types, they nevertheless work like in English. Examples of particles as they are understood by Slovak linguists are the English words (the text in the brackets gives a sentence as an example): Well (, what will we do?), yes, anyway, obviously, above all, not ...at all, And ( what do you think?), But ( that is impossible!), so (, that's it!), hardly, really, most importantly, also, (what) the beard (is he doing?), actually, please, even, in sum, believe it or not, maybe, unfortunately, of course, I wonder where (you have been), in one word ...

History Relationships to other languages The Slovak language arose directly from the Proto-Slavic language independently of other Slavic languages (see History).

The present-day Slovak language is closely related to the other west Slavic languages.

Nowadays Czechs and Slovaks have more common words due to their long historic coexistence and language standardization policies before but especially within the now-defunct country of Czechoslovakia. Slovak is most apparently related to Czech in written form (because the Slovak literary language spelling was inspired by Czech spelling), but differs from it both phonetically and grammatically. However, Slovak did not arise from the Czech language (neither from Old nor from Middle Czech) and the Czech language started to penetrate to Slovakia only in the 14th century. Adult Slovaks are able to understand Czech and to some extent Polish language and Sorbian without a translator. As regards to Polish and Sorbian, the degree of understanding is highly dependent on the degree to which the individual has been exposed to these languages. Written Polish may look complicated to a Slovak due to its orthography — words which are pronounced similarly and often have the same meaning may look different in each language.

During the existence of Czechoslovakia (and especially due to common television, frequent contacts and the prestige of Czech), the spoken Slovak language took over many Czech words, idioms and some features of the syntax (e.g. Sokolová, 1995; Musilová and Sokolová, 2004), and in turn lost many typical Slovak expressions. The split of Czechoslovakia (1993) brought about a reshaping of mutual Czech-Slovak contacts. The precise extent of the decrease in intelligibility between Slovak and Czech is difficult to measure due to a lack of reliable data from the period of the common state that would be comparable to the data the linguists and scientist have today. Some Czech children today themselves, however, claim that they do not understand Slovak-language TV or radio programs perfectly (they are sometimes dubbed into Czech, which was not the case in the past) and are unable to read Slovak texts conveniently, this is also confirmed by young Slovak students in the Czech Republic. There is some evidence that Czech children (up to certain age) had not understood Slovak well in the period of Czechoslovakia either, but at they learned it by being exposed to Slovak in contrast to present-time (see Nábělková, 2003, 2007, and Sloboda, 2004, for more details). Concerning learners of either Czech or Slovak as a foreign language, they do not understand the other language "automatically". Slovak seems to keep slightly converging on Czech, especially in phraseology and volabulary, even after the split of Czechoslovakia, due to the frequent use of Czech on major TV channels (even for children) and due to the fact that there are more Czech books on the Slovak market then before 1993.

With respect to different varieties of Slovak, the standard (literary language) Slovak, which is based on Central Slovak dialects, is mutually intelligible with Czech and shares much of professional terminology with it due to common language policy in terminology building in the period after the Second World War. In contrast to Western, Central and standard varieties of Slovak, Eastern Slovak dialects are much less intelligible with Czech, since they structurally differ from Czech the most and the Czechs do not usually come into contact with them (Eastern Slovaks in the Czech Republic use predominantly standard Slovak, or Czech, in communication with Czechs).

The Rusyn language is mutually intelligible with eastern Slovak dialects (but both lack professional terminology and higher style expressions). The Polish language and Sorbian languages are somewhat intelligible to both Slovak and Czech, but they have different professional terminology and higher style expressions — the more you keep your language style low and simple, the better you are understood.

The Slovak standard language holds a central position among Slavic languages: It has common features with:

• the Czech language neighbor of Slovakia
• the Polish language neighbor of Slovakia, for example the use of the prefix pre-, use of the consonant dz, and some vocabulary (teraz, now; pivnica, cellar)
• Slavic languages (especially Slovenian language and the Kajkavian dialect of Croatian language); this connection is due to the fact that the territory of present-day Hungary was inhabited by the Sloviene (see Great Moravia) before and for some time after the Hungarians settled there in the 10th century, thus allowing for language changes to spread from today's Slovakia (particularly its central parts) to Slovenia and Croatia or in the other direction.
• East Slavic languages neighbors of Slovakia; a Rusyns and Ukrainians minority live in northern eastern Slovakia]

This central position makes it relatively easy for other Slavs to understand Slovak and vice-versa. Thus, Slovak provides a good starting point from which to branch off to any additional Slavic language. Note however that the above only holds for the standard (that is northern central Slovak) language, not necessarily for the dialects (see Dialects).

Slovak is not related to the (non-Slavic, non-Indo-European) Hungarian language. However, it borrowed words from Hungarian in the past as a result of being part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11th century to 1918, but only a very low number of them is still used in literary language today. Traces of Hungarian loanwords remain in some dialects; they are usually words with a very specific meaning. On the contrary, the Hungarian language borrowed some 1200 words from old Slovak (and 1000 from other Slavic languages), especially in the 10th century, when the nomadic Hungarians settled in present-day Hungary and had to take over basic vocabulary necessary for sedentary life Kniezsa, István: A magyar nyelv szláv jövevényszavai. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1955;Miklosich, Franz (Miklošič, Franc): Die slavischen Elemente im Magyarischen, 1884;Stanislav, Ján: Slovenský juh v stredoveku. Literárne informačné centrum, 2004;Stanislav, Ján: Dejiny slovenského jazyka (I-V). Vydavateľstvo SAV, 1956;Ondruš, Šimon: Slovensko-maďarské lexikálne vzťahy. in: Studia Academica Slovaca. 2. Prednášky IX. letného seminára slovenského jazyka a kultúry. 1973;Ondruš, Šimon: Čo dali starí Slováci starým Maďarom. in: Zápisník slovenského jazykovedca, 4, 1985;Bartek, Henrich: Najstaršie slovenské slová v maďarčine. in: Elán 14, 1944;Doruľa, Ján: Z histórie slovensko-maďarských jazykových vzťahov. in: Slovenská reč 38, 1975;Novák, Ľudovít: Slovenčina a maďarčina v prvých storočiach ich dejín v strednej Európe. in: II. Między-narodowy zjazd slawistów. Sekcja I – Językoznawstwo. Księga referatów, 1934, for example the words for:

• basic objects: table (sk: stôl, hu: asztal), window (sk: oblok, hu: ablak), court (sk: dvor (u dvora), hu: udvar), street (sk: ulica, hu: utca), chimney (sk: komín, hu: kémény), tablecloth (sk: obrus, hu: abrosz), money (sk: peniaz, hu: pénz), key (sk: kľúč, hu: kulcs), creek (sk: potok, hu: patak), pub (sk: krčma, hu: kocsma), roof (sk: strecha, hu: eszterha), flag (sk: záclona = curtain, hu: zászló), wax (sk: vosk, hu: viaszk), rock (sk: skala, hu: szikla), ore (sk: ruda, hu: rúd), shaft (sk: hriadeľ, hu: gerendély), gate (sk: brána, hu: borona), comb (sk: hrebeň, hu: gereben), pile (sk: hromada/stoh, hu: gramada/asztag), pail (sk: vedro, hu: vödör), swamp (sk: močiar, hu: mocsár), rainbow (old sk: daga, hu: donga), stick (sk: palica, hu: pálca), chain (sk: reťaz, hu: retesz), artery (sk: cieva, hu: cév), dinner plate (sk: tanier, hu: tanyér), basket (sk: kôš, hu: kosár), mine (sk: baňa, hu: bánya), seal (sk: pečať, hu: pecsét), razor, axe (sk: sekera, hu: szekerce = "hatchet"), push bolt, hoop, skate (sk: korčuľa, hu: korcsolya), shovel (sk: lopata, hu: lapát), boat (sk: čln, hu: csónak), cup (sk: pohár, hu: pohár = "drinking glass"), bacon (sk: slanina, hu: szalonna)
• days of the week: Wednesday (sk: streda, hu: szerda), Thursday (sk: štvrtok, hu: csütörtök), Friday (sk: piatok, hu: péntek), Saturday (sk: sobota, hu: szombat)
• religion: Christian (sk: kresťan, hu: keresztény), pagan (sk: pohan, hu: pogány), angel (sk: anjel, hu: angyal), hell (sk: peklo, hu: pokol), Christmas (old sk: karačún, hu: karácsony), baptise (sk: krstiť, hu: keresztel)...
• state and government: ruling prince (sk: knieža, old hu: kenéz), king (sk: kráľ, hu: király), servant (sk: sluha, hu: szolga), county, county border, county leader...{
• clothing: cap (cloth; sk: čiapka, hu: sapka), coat (sk, hu: kabát), bonnet, robe, skirt...
• animals: bear (sk: medveď, hu: medve), cat (sk: mačka, hu: macska), male sheep (sk: baran, hu: bárány), drake, capon, boar, pigeon, salmon, ass, bull, buffallo, mare, cock, rat, peacock, sable, turtle-dove, jay, sparrow, pike, otter, flea, moth, worm, tapeworm, herd, swarm, pincer, liver fluke ...
• plants: cherry (sk: čerešňa/pl. čerešne, hu: cseresznye), cabbage, rye, maize, beet, carrot, cucumber, lentil, mushroom, maple, millet, poppy, raspberry, poplar, moss, straw...
• military: valiant (sk: víťaz, hu: vitéz), struggle (sk: boj = fight, hu: baj), fight (old sk: harc, hu: harcz), camp (sk: tábor, hu: tábor), lance (sk: kopija, hu: kopja), rifle (sk: puška, hu: puska), platoon (sk: čata, hu: csata)...
• professions: miller (sk: mlynár, hu: molnár), smith (sk: kováč, hu: kovács), cottar (sk: želiar, hu: zsellér), hunter (sk: poľovník, old hu: polovnyak ), ....
• nations: German (sk: nemec, hu: német), Prussian, Valachian, Danube, Greek, Jewish...
• other: error (sk: chyba, hu: hiba), beast (sk: potvora, hu: patvar), to measure (sk: merať, hu: mér), neighbour (sk:sused, hu:szomszéd), brother (now, friend in Hu; sk: brat, hu: barát), pure (sk: pustý/pustá/pusté, hu: puszta' = "wasteland", "empty land"'), dear (sk: drahý/drahá/drahé, hu: drága), supper (sk: obed, hu: ebéd' = "lunch"'), legend (sk: bájka, hu: báj), grandchild (sk: vnuk, hu: únoka)

Differences between the Slovak and Czech languages Linguistically, the Czech and Slovak languages form a language continuum, eastern Slovak dialects then blend into the Rusyn language. Czech exists in two different forms (excluding the Moravian dialects): literary Czech and colloquial Czech. The standard Slovak language is closer to literary Czech, especially in phonology and morphology. The differences between parts of the vocabulary of some Slovak dialects are rather big, comparable to the differences between standard Slovak and Czech. The description below sums the main differences between standard Slovak and Czech.

• Slovak graphemes that do not exist in the Czech language are ä, ľ, ĺ, ŕ and ô (see Pronunciation). Czech graphemes that do not exist in the Slovak language are: ě, ř and ů.
• Slovak has the following phonemes which Czech does not have: , , , (this one only in higher-style standard Slovak, or some dialects), and the diphthongs , , , ; and on the contrary, Czech has .
• Czech uses peculiar pitch contour, not present in Slovak (or Moravian dialects).
• The Slovak, unlike Czech, uses palatalization more frequently (that is, is phonetically "softer")
• The phonetic assimilation and a kind of "liaison" are much stronger in the Slovak language
• The Slovak grammar:
• is somewhat simpler (that is more regular) than Czech literary language grammar, since the present-day Slovak language standard has been codified only in the 19th century. However the colloquial Czech makes some more simplifications, especially merging case suffixes.
• has different declension and conjugation endings and paradigms
• has 6 morphological cases (see Slovak declension) - the vocative (officially not considered a separate grammatical case anymore) is almost lost, while the Czech vocative is well alive
• Some basic Slovak is similar to the Czech language, and a few (almost) identical words have different meaning. The differences are mostly of simple historical origin (for example the word hej mentioned below was used in Great Moravia). As for professional terminology, except for biology (esp. all names of animals and plants), the Czech terminology was mostly taken over (in Slovakized form) for practical reasons. The Czech-Slovak Dictionary of Different Terms (1989, Prague) contains some 11.000 entries (without professional terminology):
• Examples of basic different words are: to speak (SK hovoriť – CZ mluvit), yeah (SK hej – CZ jo), if (SK ak – CZ jestli, jestliže, -li), Good bye (SK do videnia – CZ na shledanou), January (SK január – CZ leden), cat (SK mačka – CZ kočka), to kiss (SK bozkať – CZ líbat), now (SK teraz – CZ teď, nyní), goods (SK tovar – CZ zboží), he/she/it is not (SK nie je - CZ není) and so forth.
• Examples of typical small differences: endings (SK -cia, -dlo, -ť, -om – CZ -c(i)e, -tko, -t, -em), expressions (SK treba, možno – CZ je třeba, je možné / je možno), prepositions (SK na – CZ k, pro) . . .
• Examples of words with different meanings : SK topiť (to melt) – CZ topit (to heat), SK horký (bitter) – CZ horký (hot) . . .
• The Czech language has no equivalents for many Slovak words and vice versa. Examples of no Czech equivalents: prepositions (popod, ponad, sponad. . . ), verbs (ľúbiť, povynechávať, skackať, siakať,. . . ), nouns (kúrňava, kaštieľ, hoľa, grúň). . ., pronouns (dakto, voľakto, henten,. . . ) etc.
• The Czech language does not have the Rhythmical Rule (see Pronunciation)
• Slovak uses the passive voice formed like in English less than the Czech, and prefers the passive voice formed using the reflexive pronoun sa (like in Romance languages) instead
• Slovak has many dialects, while in the Czech Republic, many dialects have disappeared, especially in the Bohemian part of the Czech Republic.

Dialects The spoken Slovak language consists of a large number of dialects that can be divided in four basic groups:

• Eastern Slovak dialects (in Spiš, Šariš, Zemplin and Abov)
• Central Slovak dialects (in Liptov, Orava (county), Turiec, Tekov, Hont, Novohrad, Gemer and the historic Zvolen county)
• Western Slovak dialects (in remaining Slovakia: Kysuce, Trencin, Trnava, Nitra, Zahorie)
• Lowland (dolnozemské) Slovak dialects (outside Slovakia in the Pannonian Plain which belonged to the Hungarian part of the former Austro-Hungary, i.e. in today's Serbian Vojvodina, southeastern Hungary, western Romania, and the Croatian part of Syrmia)

Note: The fourth group of dialects is often not considered a separate group but a subgroup of Central and Western Slovak dialects (see e.g. Štolc, 1968). However, nowadays it differs from them to the extent that cannot be overlooked due to the contact with the surrounding languages (Serbian, Romanian and Hungarian) and long-time geographical separation from the territory of Slovakia, which lead to the emergence of idiosyncratic linguistic features (cf. the studies in Zborník Spolku vojvodinských slovakistov, e.g. Dudok, 1993, and other sources).

For an external map of the three groups in Slovakia see here.

The dialect groups differ mostly in phonology, vocabulary and inflection. The differences in syntax are minor. Modified Central Slovak forms the basis of the present-day standard language. Not all dialects are fully mutually intelligible. The differences between some Slovak dialects make it for example often impossible for an inhabitant of the Slovak capital Bratislava (in western Slovakia) to understand a person from eastern Slovakia. Also, at the dialect level, only some dialects of western Slovak can be considered fully mutually intelligible with the Czech language, with which Slovak borders in the west.

The dialects are fragmented geographically, separated by numerous mountain ranges (Slovakia is a mountainous country). The first three groups already existed in the 10th century. All of them are also spoken by the Slovaks outside Slovakia (USA, Canada, Croatian Slavonia, Bulgaria and elsewhere) and Central and Western dialects form the basis of the Lowland dialects (see above).

The western dialects contain many features common with the Moravian dialects in the Czech Republic, the southern central dialects contain a few features common with South Slavic languages, and the eastern dialects a few features common with Polish and the East Slavonic languages (cf. Štolc, 1994). Lowland dialects share some words and pronunciation features with the languages surrounding them (Serbian, Hungarian and Romanian).

References

• Dudok, D. (1993) Vznik a charakter slovenských nárečí v juhoslovanskej Vojvodine emergence and character of the Slovak dialects in Yugoslav Vojvodina. Zborník spolku vojvodinských slovakistov 15. Nový Sad: Spolok vojvodinských slovakistov, pp. 19-29.

• Musilová, K. and Sokolová, M. (2004) Funkčnost česko-slovenských kontaktových jevů v současnosti functionality of Czech-Slovak contact phenomena in the present-time. In Fiala, J. and Machala, L. (eds.) Studia Moravica I (AUPO, Facultas Philosophica Moravica 1). Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, pp. 133–146.

• Nábělková, M. (2003) Súčasné kontexty slovensko-českej a česko-slovenskej medzijazykovosti contexts of the Slovak-Czech and Czech-Slovak interlinguality. In Pospíšil, I. – Zelenka, M. (eds.) Česko-slovenské vztahy v slovanských a středoevropských souvislostech (meziliterárnost a areál). Brno: ÚS FF MU, pp. 89–122.

• Nábělková, M. (2006) V čom bližšie, v čom ďalej... Spisovná slovenčina vo vzťahu k spisovnej češtine a k obecnej češtine what closer, in what further... Standard Slovak in relation to Standard Czech and Common Czech. In Gladkova, H. and Cvrček, V. (eds.) Sociální aspekty spisovných jazyků slovanských. Praha: Euroslavica, pp. 93–106.

• Nábělková, M. (2007) Closely related languages in contact: Czech, Slovak, "Czechoslovak". International Journal of the Sociology of Language 183, pp. 53-73.

• Sloboda, M. (2004) Slovensko-česká (semi)komunikace a vzájemná (ne)srozumitelnost (semi)communication and the mutual (un)intelligibility. Čeština doma a ve světě XII, No. 3–4, pp. 208–220.

• Sokolová, M. (1995) České kontaktové javy v slovenčine contact phenomena in Slovak. In Ondrejovič, S. and Šimková, M. (eds.) Sociolingvistické aspekty výskumu súčasnej slovenčiny (Sociolinguistica Slovaca 1). Bratislava: Veda, pp. 188–206.

• Štolc, Jozef (1968) Reč Slovákov v Juhoslávii I.: Zvuková a gramatická stavba speech of the Slovaks in Yugoslavia: phonological and grammatical structure. Bratislava: Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied.

• Štolc, Jozef (1994) Slovenská dialektológia dialectology. Ed. I. Ripka. Bratislava: Veda.

External links

• The Dictionary of the Slovak language (1960's; the biggest Slovak monolingual dictionary; Slovak Academy of Sciences) + Short Slovak Language Dictionary (monolingual; last edition; Slovak Academy of Sciences)
• Slovak National Corpus (Slovak Academy of Sciences)
• SLEX - Online version of Short Slovak Language Dictionary
• Slovak Alphabet and Pronunciation
• Few basic tips on speaking Slovak
• Map of Slovak Dialects

{{Infobox Language|name=Slovak|nativename=slovenčina|familycolor=Indo-European|states=Slovakia, United States, Canada, Czech Republic, Serbia, Romania, Hungary etc.]|speakers=over 6 million|rank=104|fam2=Slavic languages|fam3=West Slavic languages|fam4=Czech-Slovak languages|nation=

Vojvodina (Serbia)] (The Ľudovít Štúr Linguistic Institute)] belonging to the West Slavic languages (together with Czech language, Polish language, Kashubian language and Sorbian language). Slovak is Mutual intelligibility with Czech.

Slovak is spoken in Slovakia (by 5 million people), the United States (500,000, emigrants), the Czech Republic (320,000, due to the former Czechoslovakia), Hungary (20,000, due to former unitary state), Northern Serbia-Vojvodina (60,000, due to Austria-Hungary), Romania (22,000, due to A-H), Poland (20,000), Canada (20,000, emigrants), Australia (emigrants), Austria, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Croatia (5,000) and some other countries.

Alphabet A technical note for users of the English wikipedia: All Slovak vowels, but no Slovak-specific consonants (that is no č, ď, ľ, ĺ, ň, ŕ, š, ť, ž) are available within the Latin-1 encoding.

Slovak uses a modification of the Roman (Latin) alphabet. The modifications include the four diacriticals (ˇ, ´, ¨, ^; see Pronunciation) placed above certain letters.

The lexicographic ordering of the Slovak alphabet is very similar to that of English: A B C D DZ E F G H CH I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z. The complete alphabet, however, allows for characters with diacritics (the character with diacritics always comes after the same character without diacritics) and is as follows: a á ä b c č d ď dz dž e é f g h ch i í j k l ľ ĺ m n ň o ó ô p q r ŕ s š t ť u ú v w x y ý z ž. Note that dz, dž and ch are considered single letters and that ch follows the h (not the c). The letters "q", "w", "x" are only used in loan words, never in native Slovak words.

The names of the letters (like in English ey, bee, cee, dee …) are: a (á), á (dlhé á), ä (prehlasované á; á s dvoma bodkami), bé, cé, čé, dé, ďé, dzé, džé, e (é), é (dlhé é), ef, gé, há, chá, i (í), í (dlhé í), jé, ká, el, eľ, dlhé el, em, en, eň, o (ó), ó (dlhé ó), ô (ó s vokáňom), pé, kvé, er, dlhé er, es, eš, té, ťé, u (ú), ú (dlhé ú), vé, dvojité vé, iks, ypsilon (ý), dlhé ý, zet, žet (for pronunciation see below)

The characters are divided as follows:

• Vowels are: a á ä e é i í o ó y ý u ú (+ r ŕ l ĺ).
• Diphthongs are: ia, ie, iu, ô, ou.
• Consonants are: b c č d ď dz dž f g h ch j k l ľ ĺ m n ň p q r ŕ s š t ť v w x z ž. The consonants r, l, ŕ, ĺ are considered vowels in certain cases (see Pronunciation).

Pronunciation and spelling The Slovak language has distinctive palatalization. It is the closest to Russian language of all the Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet, and many of the Slovak words and pronunciations would be very familiar to students of Russian.

The accent (poetry) (stress (linguistics)) in standard language is always placed on the first syllable of a word (or on the preceding preposition, see below). However, this is not the case in certain dialects. The eastern dialects, for example, have penultimate stress, which at times makes them difficult for speakers of Standard Slovak to understand. Some of the north-central dialects have a weak stress on the first syllable, which becomes stronger and "moves" to the penultimate in certain cases. The stress is weaker than the English or German or Russian accent, but stronger than the French one. Monosyllabic conjunctions, monosyllabic short personal pronouns and auxiliary verb forms of the verb byť (to be) are, as a rule, not stressed.

Prepositions are pronounced in conjunction with the following word, unless the words are long (four syllables or more) or the preposition stands at the very beginning of a sentence.

The Acute accent mark (in Slovak "dĺžeň", that is prolongation mark) indicates the lengthing of the quantity of the vowel it modifies, for example í = approximately ii. The acute can be above all vowels and only above the 2 consonants "l" and "r" (which, in such cases, are considered vowels.) Long vowels are about twice as long as their short counterparts.

The circumflex ("vokáň") exists only above the letter "o" (and turns the o into a diphthong – see below).

The Umlaut (diacritic) ("prehláska", "dve bodky" = two dots) is only used above the letter "a" (and turns the a into almost e – see below).

The caron (in Slovak "mäkčeň", i.e. a "palatalization mark" or "softener") indicates either palatalization or a change of alveolar fricatives into post-alveolar, in informal Slovak linguistics often called just "palatalization". Only 8 consonants can bear a caron, that is, not all "normal" consonants have a "caroned" counterpart:

• In printed texts, the caron is printed in two forms: (1) č, dž, š, ž, ň and (2) ľ, ď, ť (looking more like an apostrophe), but this is just a convention. In handwritten texts, it always takes the form (1).
• Phonetically, there are two forms of "palatalization": ľ, ň, ď, ť are Palatalization consonants, while č, dž, š, ž are postalveolar affricates and fricatives.
• To accelerate writing, a rule has been introduced that the frequent character combinations ňe, ďe, ťe, ľe, ňi, ďi, ťi, ľi, ňí, ďí, ťí, ľí must be written ne, de, te, le, ni, di, ti, li, ní, dí, tí, lí (that is without the caron). In other words ne, de, te, le, ni, di etc. are pronounced as if there were a caron above the consonant. There are, however, exceptions to this rule:

# foreign words (for example telefón is pronounced with a hard t and a hard l) # the following old Slavic words: ten (that), jeden (one), vtedy (then) are pronounced with hard t and d # nominative masculine plural endings of pronouns and adjectives do not "soften" preceding n, d, t, l (for example tí odvážni mladí muži , the/those brave young men) # short e in adjectival endings that is, actually (morphonemically), long é shortened by the "rhythmical rule" (see below) does not "soften" preceding n, d, t, l (for example krásne stromy , beautiful trees, c.f. zelené stromy , green trees)

• ľ is pronounced nowadays by many speakers, esp. from western Slovakia, as a non-palatalized l, esp. in li and le where the caron is not written. The officially correct pronunciation of li and le as palatalized is already frequently perceived either as a trait of middle and eastern dialect, or as a feature of language zealots. (A similar tendency occurs in yeísmo Spanish language, where however the palatal ll is pronounced like English j instead of λ.)

In addition, the following rules hold:

When a voiced consonant having a voiceless correspondent (that is b, d, ď, dz, dž, g, h, z, ž) stands at the end of the word before a pause, it is pronounced as a voiceless consonant (that is p, t, ť, c, č, k, ch, s, š, respectively), for example pohyb is pronounced , prípad is pronounced

When "v" stands at the end of the syllable, it is pronounced as non-syllabic u (bilabial approximant ), with the exception of the position before "n" or "ň", for example, kov (metal), kravský (cow - adjective), but povstať (uprise) because the v is not at the end of the syllable (po-vstať), hlavný because "v" stands before "n" here

The assimilation rule: When voiced consonant(s) having a voiceless correspondent and voiceless consonant(s) meet in the word, all consonants of the group are pronounced as voiced if the last consonant is a voiced one, or as voiceless if the last consonant is a voiceless one, for example otázka is pronounced , vzchopiť sa is pronounced . This rule applies also over the word boundary, for example prísť domov (to come home), viac jahôd (more strawberries). The voiced counterpart of "ch" is .

The rhythmical rule: A long syllable (that is a syllable containing á, é, í, ý, ó, ú, ŕ, ĺ, ia, ie, iu, ô) cannot be followed by another long syllable in the same word, that is the following syllable must be made short (in writing and pronunciation) (this rule has implications for the formation, declension (for example žen-ám but tráv-am) and Grammatical conjugation (for example nos-ím but súd-im) of words; there are several exceptions to this rule; this rule is typical of the literary Slovak language (not existing in the closely related Czech language, or some Slovak dialects).

Official transcriptions Slovak linguists do not usually use IPA for phonetic transcription of their own language or others, but rather their own system based on the Slovak alphabet. Many English language textbooks, for example, make use of this alternative system of 'phonetic' transcription of English, a factor which contributes to some Slovaks developing a particular ('incorrect') pronunciation of certain English phonemes.In the following table, pronunciation of each grapheme is given in this system as well as in IPA and Kirshenbaum.

{| class="wikitable"!grapheme!! IPA !! Kirsh. !! transcr.|-|a || ||a ||a|-|á || ||a: ||á|-|ä || ||&, E ||ä, e|-|b || ||b ||b|-|c || ||ts ||c|-|č || ||ts. ||č|-|d || ||d ||d|-|ď || ||d; ||ď|-|dz || ||dz |||-|dž || ||dz. |||-|e || ||E ||e|-|é || ||E: ||é|-|f || ||f ||f|-|g || ||g ||g|-|h || ||h ||h|-|ch || ||x ||x|-|i || ||I ||i|-|í || ||i: ||í|-|j || ||j ||j|-|k || ||k ||k|-|l || ||l, l- ||l|-|ĺ || ||l-: ||ĺ|-|ľ || ||l; ||ľ|-|m || ||m ||m|-|n || ||n ||n|-|ň || ||n; ||ň|-|o || ||O ||o|-|ó ||||O: ||ó|-|ô ||||uo ||ŭo|-|p || ||p ||p|-|q || ||kv ||kv|-|r || ||r, r- ||r|-|ŕ ||||r-: ||ŕ|-|s || ||s ||s|-|š || ||s. ||š|-|t || ||t ||t|-|ť || ||t; ||ť|-|u || ||u ||u|-|ú || ||u: ||ú|-|v || ||v ||v|-|w || ||v ||v|-|x || ||ks ||ks|-|y || ||I ||i|-|ý || ||i: ||í|-|z || ||z ||z|-|ž || ||z. ||ž|}

Some additional notes (transcriptions in IPA unless otherwise stated):

• Pronunciation of ä as is already archaic (or dialectical) but still considered correct by some linguistic authorities; the other standard pronunciation today is .
• r and l can be syllabic phonemes and and behave as vowels, i.e. they have their long phonemic counterparts and (written ŕ and ĺ), e.g., vlk (wolf), prst (finger), štvrť (quarter), krk (neck), bisyllabic vĺča—vĺ-ča (wolfling), vŕba—vŕ-ba (willow-tree), etc.
• ch, normally the unvoiced , can have the voiced as an allophone as a result of phonetic assimilation.
• The sound group or graphemic group -ou (at the end of words) is pronounced but is not considered a separate diphthong, nor grapheme respectively (unlike ch, dz, dž). Its phonemic interpretation is /ov/.
• ia, ie, iu form diphthongs in native Slovak words, but two monophtongs in foreign and loan words.
• m has the allophone in front of the labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/.
• n in front of (post)alveolar fricatives has an allophone written as in Slovak phonemic transcription; this is, however, an allophone of /n/.
• n can be in front of the velar plosives /k/ and /g/.
• f can be voiced as a result of phonetic assimilation.

Intuitive transcription for English speakers The following list shows a list of Slovak sounds and their approximate English equivalents:

The values of the characters b, d, f, h, l, k, m, n, p, x are approximately equal to their English counterparts.The vowel combinations ia, ie, iu, ô appr. like uo are diphthongs, that is both elements are pronounced "together" the first element is almost a Slovak j for ia, ie, and iu and almost an English w for ô.

• a – u in cut
• á – a in father (long a)
• ä – e in set (or in old-fashioned — but canonical — pronunciation like a in fat)
• c – ts in its
• č – ch in child
• ď – approx. British d in during, dew
• dz – approx. d+z (voiced c; very much like the Italian zz in organizzare or azzurro)
• dž – j in John (voiced č)
• e – e in set
• é – ai in fair (long e)
• g – g in go
• h - always pronounced; voiced (/ɦ/), except if at the end of the word
• ch – Scottish ch, for example in Loch Ness (like Russian х)
• i – i in sit
• í – ee in need (long i)
• j – y in yes
• ľ – approx. l in lurid (like gli... in Italian, lh in Portuguese or ll in non-yeismo Spanish)
• ĺ – approx. "ll"(long "L") - no known equivalents in other languages
• ň – like French or Italian gn, Portuguese nh or Spanish ñ
• o – o in odd
• ó – aw in saw, a in ball (long o)
• r – "rolled r" like in Italian, Scottish, Bavarian (and like a Spanish r that is not before a vowel and not at the beginning of the word, for example in color)
• ŕ – approx. Spanish rr in Zorro)
• s – s in save
• š – sh in she
• ť – approx. the first t in tutor
• ô – approx. wo in wonder (or like Italian uo in buono)
• q – qu is like Slovak kv; q does not occur elsewhere
• u – u in put
• ú – oo in choose (long u)
• v – v in very (but at the end of the syllable approx. as the second w in window, see above)
• y – like Slovak i
• ý – like Slovak í (long y, as ee in eel)
• z – z in zone
• ž – s in pleasure (like French and Portuguese j in journal/jornal or g in général/general)
• w – like Slovak v

Orthography The primary principle of Slovak spelling is the phoneme principle (that is "Write as you hear") – as opposed to the English spelling where the etymological principle is primary. The secondary principle is the morphological principle (that is, all forms derived from the same stem are written in the same way even if they are pronounced differently in reality) – the main example is the assimilation rule (see Pronunciation). The tertiary principle is the etymological principle, which can be seen in the use of i after certain consonants and of y after other consonants, although both i and y are pronounced the same way. And finally there is the rarely applied grammatical principle, under which, for example, there is a difference in writing (but not in the pronunciation) between the basic singular and plural form of masculine adjectives, for example pekný (nice – sg.) vs pekní (nice – pl.), both pronounced .

Most loanword receive Slovak spelling immediately or after some time, for example "weekend" is víkend, "software" is softvér (but some 15-years-ago was spelled the English way), and "quality" is spelled kvalita (different sound; possibly from Italian language qualità). However, personal and geographical names from other languages using Latin alphabets keep their original spelling, unless there is a fully Slovak form for the name (for example Londýn for "London").

Slovak orthography has changed many times. One of the most important changes was after World War II when s began to be written as z where pronounced as in prefix (linguistics), for example smluva into zmluva, sväz into zväz. (That is, the phonemic principle has been given priority over the etymological principle in this case.)

Interestingly, the Slovak alphabet (minus the vowel diacritics) is often used to transcribe Russian language into the Latin alphabet.

Syntax The main features of Slovak syntax are:

• The verb (predicate (grammar)) agrees in person and number with its subject (grammar) – just like for example in German language, Slavic languages and Romance languages, for example:

Speváčka spieva. (The+female+singer is+singing.) (Speváčk-a spieva-0, where -0 is a third person singular ending)

Speváčky spievajú. (The+female+singers are+singing.) (Speváčk-y spieva-j-ú, where -ú is a third person plural ending, -j- is a Hiatus (linguistics) sound)

My speváčky spievame. (We the+female+singers are+singing.) (My speváčk-y spieva-me, where -me is the first person plural ending) and so forth.

• An adjective, pronoun and partly also a numeral agrees in person, gender and case with the noun it refers to (see Slovak declension) – just like in most Slavic languages.
• An adjective always precedes the corresponding noun – as in English language, unlike in Polish language and Romance languages. Botanic or zoological terms are exceptions (for example, mačka divá, literally "cat wild", Felis silvestris).

Word order in Slovak is relatively free (unlike in English or French language), since the strong inflection of words enables the identification of the specific role of a word within the sentence (subject, object, predicate, etc.) regardless of its placement. This relatively free word order enables Slovaks (just as in most other Slavic languages) to make use the word order to impose emphasis conveying importance or novelty of themes in a sentence i.e. constituents relating to old information precede constituents with new information, or those that carry most emphasis.

Examples: Ten veľký muž tam dnes otvára obchod. = The big man opens a store there today. (ten = the or that; veľký = big; muž = man; tam = there; dnes = today; otvára = opens; obchod = store) Ten veľký muž dnes otvára obchod tam. = It is there that the big man opens a store today. Dnes tam otvára obchod ten veľký muž. = It is the big man who opens a store there today. Obchod tam dnes otvára ten veľký muž. = As for the store, it is opened there by the big man.

However, the normal order is Subject-Verb-Object (as in English) and the word order is not completely arbitrary.For example, in the above example, the following combinations are not possible: Ten otvára veľký muž tam dnes obchod. Obchod muž tam ten veľký dnes otvára. ... And the following, for instance, are not likely to occur: Otvára ten veľký muž tam dnes obchod? = Is that big man opening the store there? Obchod ten veľký muž dnes tam otvára.

This means that these senteces will not be grammatically correct, although they are "understandable".

Morphology Articles (Členy) There are no articles in the Slovak language. If it is really necessary to emphasize that the thing that one is talking about was already mentioned, the demonstrative pronoun ten (fem: tá, neuter: to) can be used in front of the noun.

Nouns (Podstatné mená) See: Slovak declension

Adjectives (Prídavné mená) See: Slovak declension

Pronouns (Zámená) See: Slovak declension

Numerals (Číslovky) The basic formation of Slovak numerals is similar to that of English: there are special words for 0-19 and for 20, 30 . . . 90, 100, 1000 etc. and the compound numerals (21, 1054) are simply combinations of these special words formed in the same order as their mathematical symbol is written (for example 21 = dvadsaťjeden (that is literally „twenty-one“)).

The numerals are:(1) jeden (jedno (neuter), jedna (feminine)),(2) dva (dve (neuter, feminine)),(3) tri,(4) štyri,(5) päť,(6) šesť,(7) sedem,(8) osem,(9) deväť,(10) desať, (11) jedenásť, (12) dvanásť, (13) trinásť, (14) štrnásť, (15) pätnásť, (16) šestnásť, (17) sedemnásť, (18) osemnásť, (19) devätnásť, (20) dvadsať, (21) dvadsaťjeden . . . ., (30) tridsať, (31) tridsaťjeden . . . (40) štyridsať, . . . (50) päťdesiat, . . . (60) šesťdesiat, . . . (70) sedemdesiat, . . . (80) osemdesiat, . . . (90) deväťdesiat, . . . (100) sto, (101) stojeden, . . . . (200) dvesto, . . . (300) tristo, . . . (900)deväťsto, . . . (1,000) tisíc, . . . (1,100) tisícsto, . . . (2,000) dvetisíc, . . (100,000) stotisíc, . . . (200,000) dvestotisíc, . . . (1,000,000) milión, . . . (1,000,000,000) miliarda, . . .

See also: Slovak declension

Verbs (Slovesá)

• Verbs have three major conjugations distinguishing 3 persons and 2 numbers (singular and plural) – just like in English. There are several Grammatical conjugation paradigms- like in most European languages.

• á-Type Verbs

{| class="wikitable"|-! volať, to call! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| volám| voláme| volal|-| 2nd Person| voláš| voláte|-| 3rd Person| volá| volajú|}

• á-Type Verbs - rhythmic law

{| class="wikitable"|-! bývať, to live! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| bývam| bývame| býval|-| 2nd Person| bývaš| bývate|-| 3rd Person| býva| bývajú|}

• á-Type Verbs - soft stem

{| class="wikitable"|-! vracať, to return! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| vraciam| vraciame| vracal|-| 2nd Person| vraciaš| vraciate|-| 3rd Person| vracia| vracajú|}

• í-Type Verbs

{| class="wikitable"|-! robiť, to do, work! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| robím| robíme| robil|-| 2nd Person| robíš| robíte|-| 3rd Person| robí| robia|}

• í-Type Verbs - rhythmic law

{| class="wikitable"|-! vrátiť, to return! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| vrátim| vrátime| vrátil|-| 2nd Person| vrátiš| vrátite|-| 3rd Person| vráti| vrátia|}

• ie-Type Verbs

{| class="wikitable"|-! vidieť, to see! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| vidím| vidíme| videl|-| 2nd Person| vidíš| vidíte|-| 3rd Person| vidí| vidia|}

• e-Type Verbs -ovať

{| class="wikitable"|-! kupovať, to buy! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| kupujem| kupujeme| kupoval|-| 2nd Person| kupuješ| kupujete|-| 3rd Person| kupuje| kupujú|}

• e-Type Verbs - (typically -Cnuť)

{| class="wikitable"|-! zabudnuť, to forget! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| zabudnem| zabudneme| zabudol - zabudla|-| 2nd Person| zabudneš| zabudnete|-| 3rd Person| zabudne| zabudnú|}

• ie-Type Verbs - (typically -Vnuť)

{| class="wikitable"|-! minuť, to spend, miss! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| miniem| minieme| minul|-| 2nd Person| minieš| miniete|-| 3rd Person| minie| minú|}

• ie-Type Verbs - -cť, -sť, -zť

{| class="wikitable"|-! niesť, to carry! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| nesiem| nesieme| niesol, niesla|-| 2nd Person| nesieš| nesiete|-| 3rd Person| nesie| nesú|}

• ie-Type Verbs - -nieť

{| class="wikitable"|-! stučnieť, to carry (be fat)! Singular! Plural! Past Participle|-| 1st Person| stučniem| stučnieme| stučnel|-| 2nd Person| stučnieš| stučniete|-| 3rd Person| stučnie| stučnejú|}

• Irregular Verbs

{| class="wikitable"|-!! byť, to be! jesť, to eat! vedieť, to know|-| 1st Sg| som| jem| viem|-| 2nd Sg| si| ješ| vieš|-| 3rd Sg| je| je| vie|-| 1st Pl| sme| jeme| vieme|-| 2nd Pl| ste| jete| viete|-| 3rd Pl| sú| jedia| vedia|-| Past Participle| bol| jedol| vedel|}

• subject (grammar) personal pronouns are often omitted unless they are emphatic - like in Italian language or Spanish language, unlike in Russian language or English.

• The English continuous form (that is to be . . . ing) is expressed by a change in the stem of the verb or by removing the prefix (note however that this statement is a strong simplification). The non-continuous version is called a perfective verb and the continuous version an imperfective verb. Example: :to hide = skryť, to be hiding = skrývať

• There are only two preterite. Both are formed analytically. The latter, however, is not used in the modern language and is considered dated and/or grammatically incorrect. Examples for two verbs (note that the continuous form is considered a separate verb in Slavic languages):

skryť (to hide) : skryl som (I hid / I have hidden); bol som skryl (I had hidden) skrývať (to be hiding): skrýval som (I was hiding); bol som skrýval (I had been hiding)

• There is only one future tense. For imperfective verbs, it is formed analytically, for perfective verbs it is identical with the present tense. Examples:

skryť (to hide) : skryjem (I will hide / I will have hidden) skrývať (to be hiding) : budem skrývať (I will be hiding)

• There are two conditional forms. Both are formed analytically from the past tense:

skryť (to hide) : skryl by som (I would hide), bol by som skryl (I would have hidden) skrývať (to be hiding) : skrýval by som (I would be hiding), bol by som skrýval (I would have been hiding)

• The passive voice is formed either like in English (to be + past participle) or like in Romance languages (using the reflexive pronoun 'sa'):

skryť (to hide): je skrytý (he is hidden); sa skryje (he is hidden) skrývať (to be hiding): je skrývaný (he is being hidden); sa skrýva (he is being hidden)

• The active present participle (=which is ...ing) is formed using the suffixes –úci/ -iaci / - aci

skryť (to hide) : skryjúci (which is hiding) skrývať (to be hiding): skrývajúci (which is being hiding)

• The gerund (=by/when ...ing) is formed using the suffixes –úc / -uc / –iac/-ac

skryť (to hide): skryjúc (by/when hiding) skrývať (to be hiding): skrývajúc (by/when being hiding)

• The active past participle (= which was ...ing) was formerly formed using the suffix –vší, but is no longer used.

• The passive participle (= ...ed (adj.)) is formed using the suffixes -ný / -tý / -ený:

skryť (to hide): skrytý (hid) skrývať (to be hiding): skrývaný (being hidden)

• The 'verbal noun' (= the ...ing) is formed using the suffix –ie:

skryť (to hide): skrytie (the hiding) skrývať (to be hiding): skrývanie (the continuous hiding)

Adverbs (Príslovky) Adverbs are usually formed by replacing the adjectival ending with the ending –o or sometimes –e / -y(sometimes both –o and -e are possible). Examples: vysoký (high) – vysoko (highly) pekný (nice) – pekne (nicely) priateľský (friendly) – priateľsky (in a friendly manner) rýchly (fast) – rýchlo / rýchle (quickly)

The comparative/superlative of adverbs is formed by replacing the adjective comparative/superlative ending - (ej)ší by the ending –(ej)šie. Examples: rýchly (fast)– rýchlejší (faster) – najrýchlejší (fastest):rýchlo (quickly) – rýchlejšie (more quickly) – najrýchlejšie (most quickly)

Prepositions (Predložky) These are used like in English except that, in addition, each single preposition is associated with a particular grammatical case and the noun following the preposition must take the ending of the case required by the preposition.Example: from friends = od priateľov (priateľov is the genitive case of priatelia, because the preposition od (=from) always calls for its objects to be in the genitive case)

Conjunctions (Spojky), Particles (Častice), Interjections (Citoslovcia) These work more or less as in the English language.

Note: The Slovak (and Czech) definition of particles has been taken from Russian linguistics. Although the English linguists subsume them under the conjunctions, interjections and other word types, they nevertheless work like in English. Examples of particles as they are understood by Slovak linguists are the English words (the text in the brackets gives a sentence as an example): Well (, what will we do?), yes, anyway, obviously, above all, not ...at all, And ( what do you think?), But ( that is impossible!), so (, that's it!), hardly, really, most importantly, also, (what) the beard (is he doing?), actually, please, even, in sum, believe it or not, maybe, unfortunately, of course, I wonder where (you have been), in one word ...

History Relationships to other languages The Slovak language arose directly from the Proto-Slavic language independently of other Slavic languages (see History).

The present-day Slovak language is closely related to the other west Slavic languages.

Nowadays Czechs and Slovaks have more common words due to their long historic coexistence and language standardization policies before but especially within the now-defunct country of Czechoslovakia. Slovak is most apparently related to Czech in written form (because the Slovak literary language spelling was inspired by Czech spelling), but differs from it both phonetically and grammatically. However, Slovak did not arise from the Czech language (neither from Old nor from Middle Czech) and the Czech language started to penetrate to Slovakia only in the 14th century. Adult Slovaks are able to understand Czech and to some extent Polish language and Sorbian without a translator. As regards to Polish and Sorbian, the degree of understanding is highly dependent on the degree to which the individual has been exposed to these languages. Written Polish may look complicated to a Slovak due to its orthography — words which are pronounced similarly and often have the same meaning may look different in each language.

During the existence of Czechoslovakia (and especially due to common television, frequent contacts and the prestige of Czech), the spoken Slovak language took over many Czech words, idioms and some features of the syntax (e.g. Sokolová, 1995; Musilová and Sokolová, 2004), and in turn lost many typical Slovak expressions. The split of Czechoslovakia (1993) brought about a reshaping of mutual Czech-Slovak contacts. The precise extent of the decrease in intelligibility between Slovak and Czech is difficult to measure due to a lack of reliable data from the period of the common state that would be comparable to the data the linguists and scientist have today. Some Czech children today themselves, however, claim that they do not understand Slovak-language TV or radio programs perfectly (they are sometimes dubbed into Czech, which was not the case in the past) and are unable to read Slovak texts conveniently, this is also confirmed by young Slovak students in the Czech Republic. There is some evidence that Czech children (up to certain age) had not understood Slovak well in the period of Czechoslovakia either, but at they learned it by being exposed to Slovak in contrast to present-time (see Nábělková, 2003, 2007, and Sloboda, 2004, for more details). Concerning learners of either Czech or Slovak as a foreign language, they do not understand the other language "automatically". Slovak seems to keep slightly converging on Czech, especially in phraseology and volabulary, even after the split of Czechoslovakia, due to the frequent use of Czech on major TV channels (even for children) and due to the fact that there are more Czech books on the Slovak market then before 1993.

With respect to different varieties of Slovak, the standard (literary language) Slovak, which is based on Central Slovak dialects, is mutually intelligible with Czech and shares much of professional terminology with it due to common language policy in terminology building in the period after the Second World War. In contrast to Western, Central and standard varieties of Slovak, Eastern Slovak dialects are much less intelligible with Czech, since they structurally differ from Czech the most and the Czechs do not usually come into contact with them (Eastern Slovaks in the Czech Republic use predominantly standard Slovak, or Czech, in communication with Czechs).

The Rusyn language is mutually intelligible with eastern Slovak dialects (but both lack professional terminology and higher style expressions). The Polish language and Sorbian languages are somewhat intelligible to both Slovak and Czech, but they have different professional terminology and higher style expressions — the more you keep your language style low and simple, the better you are understood.

The Slovak standard language holds a central position among Slavic languages: It has common features with:

• the Czech language neighbor of Slovakia
• the Polish language neighbor of Slovakia, for example the use of the prefix pre-, use of the consonant dz, and some vocabulary (teraz, now; pivnica, cellar)
• Slavic languages (especially Slovenian language and the Kajkavian dialect of Croatian language); this connection is due to the fact that the territory of present-day Hungary was inhabited by the Sloviene (see Great Moravia) before and for some time after the Hungarians settled there in the 10th century, thus allowing for language changes to spread from today's Slovakia (particularly its central parts) to Slovenia and Croatia or in the other direction.
• East Slavic languages neighbors of Slovakia; a Rusyns and Ukrainians minority live in northern eastern Slovakia]

This central position makes it relatively easy for other Slavs to understand Slovak and vice-versa. Thus, Slovak provides a good starting point from which to branch off to any additional Slavic language. Note however that the above only holds for the standard (that is northern central Slovak) language, not necessarily for the dialects (see Dialects).

Slovak is not related to the (non-Slavic, non-Indo-European) Hungarian language. However, it borrowed words from Hungarian in the past as a result of being part of the Kingdom of Hungary from the 11th century to 1918, but only a very low number of them is still used in literary language today. Traces of Hungarian loanwords remain in some dialects; they are usually words with a very specific meaning. On the contrary, the Hungarian language borrowed some 1200 words from old Slovak (and 1000 from other Slavic languages), especially in the 10th century, when the nomadic Hungarians settled in present-day Hungary and had to take over basic vocabulary necessary for sedentary life Kniezsa, István: A magyar nyelv szláv jövevényszavai. Akadémiai Kiadó, 1955;Miklosich, Franz (Miklošič, Franc): Die slavischen Elemente im Magyarischen, 1884;Stanislav, Ján: Slovenský juh v stredoveku. Literárne informačné centrum, 2004;Stanislav, Ján: Dejiny slovenského jazyka (I-V). Vydavateľstvo SAV, 1956;Ondruš, Šimon: Slovensko-maďarské lexikálne vzťahy. in: Studia Academica Slovaca. 2. Prednášky IX. letného seminára slovenského jazyka a kultúry. 1973;Ondruš, Šimon: Čo dali starí Slováci starým Maďarom. in: Zápisník slovenského jazykovedca, 4, 1985;Bartek, Henrich: Najstaršie slovenské slová v maďarčine. in: Elán 14, 1944;Doruľa, Ján: Z histórie slovensko-maďarských jazykových vzťahov. in: Slovenská reč 38, 1975;Novák, Ľudovít: Slovenčina a maďarčina v prvých storočiach ich dejín v strednej Európe. in: II. Między-narodowy zjazd slawistów. Sekcja I – Językoznawstwo. Księga referatów, 1934, for example the words for:

• basic objects: table (sk: stôl, hu: asztal), window (sk: oblok, hu: ablak), court (sk: dvor (u dvora), hu: udvar), street (sk: ulica, hu: utca), chimney (sk: komín, hu: kémény), tablecloth (sk: obrus, hu: abrosz), money (sk: peniaz, hu: pénz), key (sk: kľúč, hu: kulcs), creek (sk: potok, hu: patak), pub (sk: krčma, hu: kocsma), roof (sk: strecha, hu: eszterha), flag (sk: záclona = curtain, hu: zászló), wax (sk: vosk, hu: viaszk), rock (sk: skala, hu: szikla), ore (sk: ruda, hu: rúd), shaft (sk: hriadeľ, hu: gerendély), gate (sk: brána, hu: borona), comb (sk: hrebeň, hu: gereben), pile (sk: hromada/stoh, hu: gramada/asztag), pail (sk: vedro, hu: vödör), swamp (sk: močiar, hu: mocsár), rainbow (old sk: daga, hu: donga), stick (sk: palica, hu: pálca), chain (sk: reťaz, hu: retesz), artery (sk: cieva, hu: cév), dinner plate (sk: tanier, hu: tanyér), basket (sk: kôš, hu: kosár), mine (sk: baňa, hu: bánya), seal (sk: pečať, hu: pecsét), razor, axe (sk: sekera, hu: szekerce = "hatchet"), push bolt, hoop, skate (sk: korčuľa, hu: korcsolya), shovel (sk: lopata, hu: lapát), boat (sk: čln, hu: csónak), cup (sk: pohár, hu: pohár = "drinking glass"), bacon (sk: slanina, hu: szalonna)
• days of the week: Wednesday (sk: streda, hu: szerda), Thursday (sk: štvrtok, hu: csütörtök), Friday (sk: piatok, hu: péntek), Saturday (sk: sobota, hu: szombat)
• religion: Christian (sk: kresťan, hu: keresztény), pagan (sk: pohan, hu: pogány), angel (sk: anjel, hu: angyal), hell (sk: peklo, hu: pokol), Christmas (old sk: karačún, hu: karácsony), baptise (sk: krstiť, hu: keresztel)...
• state and government: ruling prince (sk: knieža, old hu: kenéz), king (sk: kráľ, hu: király), servant (sk: sluha, hu: szolga), county, county border, county leader...{
• clothing: cap (cloth; sk: čiapka, hu: sapka), coat (sk, hu: kabát), bonnet, robe, skirt...
• animals: bear (sk: medveď, hu: medve), cat (sk: mačka, hu: macska), male sheep (sk: baran, hu: bárány), drake, capon, boar, pigeon, salmon, ass, bull, buffallo, mare, cock, rat, peacock, sable, turtle-dove, jay, sparrow, pike, otter, flea, moth, worm, tapeworm, herd, swarm, pincer, liver fluke ...
• plants: cherry (sk: čerešňa/pl. čerešne, hu: cseresznye), cabbage, rye, maize, beet, carrot, cucumber, lentil, mushroom, maple, millet, poppy, raspberry, poplar, moss, straw...
• military: valiant (sk: víťaz, hu: vitéz), struggle (sk: boj = fight, hu: baj), fight (old sk: harc, hu: harcz), camp (sk: tábor, hu: tábor), lance (sk: kopija, hu: kopja), rifle (sk: puška, hu: puska), platoon (sk: čata, hu: csata)...
• professions: miller (sk: mlynár, hu: molnár), smith (sk: kováč, hu: kovács), cottar (sk: želiar, hu: zsellér), hunter (sk: poľovník, old hu: polovnyak ), ....
• nations: German (sk: nemec, hu: német), Prussian, Valachian, Danube, Greek, Jewish...
• other: error (sk: chyba, hu: hiba), beast (sk: potvora, hu: patvar), to measure (sk: merať, hu: mér), neighbour (sk:sused, hu:szomszéd), brother (now, friend in Hu; sk: brat, hu: barát), pure (sk: pustý/pustá/pusté, hu: puszta' = "wasteland", "empty land"'), dear (sk: drahý/drahá/drahé, hu: drága), supper (sk: obed, hu: ebéd' = "lunch"'), legend (sk: bájka, hu: báj), grandchild (sk: vnuk, hu: únoka)

Differences between the Slovak and Czech languages Linguistically, the Czech and Slovak languages form a language continuum, eastern Slovak dialects then blend into the Rusyn language. Czech exists in two different forms (excluding the Moravian dialects): literary Czech and colloquial Czech. The standard Slovak language is closer to literary Czech, especially in phonology and morphology. The differences between parts of the vocabulary of some Slovak dialects are rather big, comparable to the differences between standard Slovak and Czech. The description below sums the main differences between standard Slovak and Czech.

• Slovak graphemes that do not exist in the Czech language are ä, ľ, ĺ, ŕ and ô (see Pronunciation). Czech graphemes that do not exist in the Slovak language are: ě, ř and ů.
• Slovak has the following phonemes which Czech does not have: , , , (this one only in higher-style standard Slovak, or some dialects), and the diphthongs , , , ; and on the contrary, Czech has .
• Czech uses peculiar pitch contour, not present in Slovak (or Moravian dialects).
• The Slovak, unlike Czech, uses palatalization more frequently (that is, is phonetically "softer")
• The phonetic assimilation and a kind of "liaison" are much stronger in the Slovak language
• The Slovak grammar:
• is somewhat simpler (that is more regular) than Czech literary language grammar, since the present-day Slovak language standard has been codified only in the 19th century. However the colloquial Czech makes some more simplifications, especially merging case suffixes.
• has different declension and conjugation endings and paradigms
• has 6 morphological cases (see Slovak declension) - the vocative (officially not considered a separate grammatical case anymore) is almost lost, while the Czech vocative is well alive
• Some basic Slovak is similar to the Czech language, and a few (almost) identical words have different meaning. The differences are mostly of simple historical origin (for example the word hej mentioned below was used in Great Moravia). As for professional terminology, except for biology (esp. all names of animals and plants), the Czech terminology was mostly taken over (in Slovakized form) for practical reasons. The Czech-Slovak Dictionary of Different Terms (1989, Prague) contains some 11.000 entries (without professional terminology):
• Examples of basic different words are: to speak (SK hovoriť – CZ mluvit), yeah (SK hej – CZ jo), if (SK ak – CZ jestli, jestliže, -li), Good bye (SK do videnia – CZ na shledanou), January (SK január – CZ leden), cat (SK mačka – CZ kočka), to kiss (SK bozkať – CZ líbat), now (SK teraz – CZ teď, nyní), goods (SK tovar – CZ zboží), he/she/it is not (SK nie je - CZ není) and so forth.
• Examples of typical small differences: endings (SK -cia, -dlo, -ť, -om – CZ -c(i)e, -tko, -t, -em), expressions (SK treba, možno – CZ je třeba, je možné / je možno), prepositions (SK na – CZ k, pro) . . .
• Examples of words with different meanings : SK topiť (to melt) – CZ topit (to heat), SK horký (bitter) – CZ horký (hot) . . .
• The Czech language has no equivalents for many Slovak words and vice versa. Examples of no Czech equivalents: prepositions (popod, ponad, sponad. . . ), verbs (ľúbiť, povynechávať, skackať, siakať,. . . ), nouns (kúrňava, kaštieľ, hoľa, grúň). . ., pronouns (dakto, voľakto, henten,. . . ) etc.
• The Czech language does not have the Rhythmical Rule (see Pronunciation)
• Slovak uses the passive voice formed like in English less than the Czech, and prefers the passive voice formed using the reflexive pronoun sa (like in Romance languages) instead
• Slovak has many dialects, while in the Czech Republic, many dialects have disappeared, especially in the Bohemian part of the Czech Republic.

Dialects The spoken Slovak language consists of a large number of dialects that can be divided in four basic groups:

• Eastern Slovak dialects (in Spiš, Šariš, Zemplin and Abov)
• Central Slovak dialects (in Liptov, Orava (county), Turiec, Tekov, Hont, Novohrad, Gemer and the historic Zvolen county)
• Western Slovak dialects (in remaining Slovakia: Kysuce, Trencin, Trnava, Nitra, Zahorie)
• Lowland (dolnozemské) Slovak dialects (outside Slovakia in the Pannonian Plain which belonged to the Hungarian part of the former Austro-Hungary, i.e. in today's Serbian Vojvodina, southeastern Hungary, western Romania, and the Croatian part of Syrmia)

Note: The fourth group of dialects is often not considered a separate group but a subgroup of Central and Western Slovak dialects (see e.g. Štolc, 1968). However, nowadays it differs from them to the extent that cannot be overlooked due to the contact with the surrounding languages (Serbian, Romanian and Hungarian) and long-time geographical separation from the territory of Slovakia, which lead to the emergence of idiosyncratic linguistic features (cf. the studies in Zborník Spolku vojvodinských slovakistov, e.g. Dudok, 1993, and other sources).

For an external map of the three groups in Slovakia see here.

The dialect groups differ mostly in phonology, vocabulary and inflection. The differences in syntax are minor. Modified Central Slovak forms the basis of the present-day standard language. Not all dialects are fully mutually intelligible. The differences between some Slovak dialects make it for example often impossible for an inhabitant of the Slovak capital Bratislava (in western Slovakia) to understand a person from eastern Slovakia. Also, at the dialect level, only some dialects of western Slovak can be considered fully mutually intelligible with the Czech language, with which Slovak borders in the west.

The dialects are fragmented geographically, separated by numerous mountain ranges (Slovakia is a mountainous country). The first three groups already existed in the 10th century. All of them are also spoken by the Slovaks outside Slovakia (USA, Canada, Croatian Slavonia, Bulgaria and elsewhere) and Central and Western dialects form the basis of the Lowland dialects (see above).

The western dialects contain many features common with the Moravian dialects in the Czech Republic, the southern central dialects contain a few features common with South Slavic languages, and the eastern dialects a few features common with Polish and the East Slavonic languages (cf. Štolc, 1994). Lowland dialects share some words and pronunciation features with the languages surrounding them (Serbian, Hungarian and Romanian).

References

• Dudok, D. (1993) Vznik a charakter slovenských nárečí v juhoslovanskej Vojvodine emergence and character of the Slovak dialects in Yugoslav Vojvodina. Zborník spolku vojvodinských slovakistov 15. Nový Sad: Spolok vojvodinských slovakistov, pp. 19-29.

• Musilová, K. and Sokolová, M. (2004) Funkčnost česko-slovenských kontaktových jevů v současnosti functionality of Czech-Slovak contact phenomena in the present-time. In Fiala, J. and Machala, L. (eds.) Studia Moravica I (AUPO, Facultas Philosophica Moravica 1). Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci, pp. 133–146.

• Nábělková, M. (2003) Súčasné kontexty slovensko-českej a česko-slovenskej medzijazykovosti contexts of the Slovak-Czech and Czech-Slovak interlinguality. In Pospíšil, I. – Zelenka, M. (eds.) Česko-slovenské vztahy v slovanských a středoevropských souvislostech (meziliterárnost a areál). Brno: ÚS FF MU, pp. 89–122.

• Nábělková, M. (2006) V čom bližšie, v čom ďalej... Spisovná slovenčina vo vzťahu k spisovnej češtine a k obecnej češtine what closer, in what further... Standard Slovak in relation to Standard Czech and Common Czech. In Gladkova, H. and Cvrček, V. (eds.) Sociální aspekty spisovných jazyků slovanských. Praha: Euroslavica, pp. 93–106.

• Nábělková, M. (2007) Closely related languages in contact: Czech, Slovak, "Czechoslovak". International Journal of the Sociology of Language 183, pp. 53-73.

• Sloboda, M. (2004) Slovensko-česká (semi)komunikace a vzájemná (ne)srozumitelnost (semi)communication and the mutual (un)intelligibility. Čeština doma a ve světě XII, No. 3–4, pp. 208–220.

• Sokolová, M. (1995) České kontaktové javy v slovenčine contact phenomena in Slovak. In Ondrejovič, S. and Šimková, M. (eds.) Sociolingvistické aspekty výskumu súčasnej slovenčiny (Sociolinguistica Slovaca 1). Bratislava: Veda, pp. 188–206.

• Štolc, Jozef (1968) Reč Slovákov v Juhoslávii I.: Zvuková a gramatická stavba speech of the Slovaks in Yugoslavia: phonological and grammatical structure. Bratislava: Vydavateľstvo Slovenskej akadémie vied.

• Štolc, Jozef (1994) Slovenská dialektológia dialectology. Ed. I. Ripka. Bratislava: Veda.

External links

• The Dictionary of the Slovak language (1960's; the biggest Slovak monolingual dictionary; Slovak Academy of Sciences) + Short Slovak Language Dictionary (monolingual; last edition; Slovak Academy of Sciences)
• Slovak National Corpus (Slovak Academy of Sciences)
• SLEX - Online version of Short Slovak Language Dictionary
• Slovak Alphabet and Pronunciation
• Few basic tips on speaking Slovak
• Map of Slovak Dialects

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